Developmental Psychology Free Essays

Collins accounts the span of developmental psychology in three separate periods, the emergent period (1890-1919) in which interest was first shown in the area of child development with Darwin’s baby diaries (1876), and some early empirical studies. The second period stated by Collins is the middle period (1920-1946) this period saw the introduction of theory into the area of development, for example from behaviourist and psychoanalysis as well as a large increase in the amount of research being done. The last period is the modern period which Collins states we are still in. We will write a custom essay sample on Developmental Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now his period started in 1947 and has seen the largest developments in the subject of child development with large steps being taken in theories methodologies and analytic procedures. (Collins, as cited in Smith, Hart 2002) As in many areas of psychology the theories surrounding developmental psychology are divided into a few, distinct schools of thought. These theory divides include Freud’s psychoanalytical theories, the nativist viewpoint, the Associatonist Assumption and the constructivist viewpoint. All are interested in how the child develops throughout their lives, however each takes a distinct viewpoint on how that change comes about. Freud was the founder of psychoanalytical theories and although some people disagree with his viewpoints, it is safe to say he has had a huge effect on the way we see psychology today. He claimed that unconscious forces that come from within a person, determine a child’s development. He suggested that there are four main states that determine how a child develops into adult life, he called these stages the psychosexual stages. Theses stages include the oral stage, the Anal stage, the Phallic Stage and the Latency stage. He claimed that if a child’s development was halted or disturbed in any of these stages then it could cause problems in later life. For example if a child did not properly develop through the first oral stage then the could become orally fixated in later life which could cause them to be more likely to take up smoking or suck their thumb to a late age. Freud claimed that three main structures called the id, the ego and the super ego develop subconsciously through these psychosexual stages. He claimed it is these three structures that are responsible for our needs, desires and controlling them. The id is said to be present in newborns and is responsible for impulses such as desires and emotions, the ego then develops to act as a mediator for the mind, so we just don’t follow these impulses from the id. The superego develops last and is responsible for our sense of duty and responsibility, almost like a conscious. This theory is quite problematic because these are unconscious processes that cannot be proven or disproven. By Freud’s analysis anyone who would deny these stages is simply in denial (Slater, Bremner. 2003). . The Nativist or ethological viewpoint states that humans are pre disposed by their genetic makeup to develop in a certain way, or develop a certain set of attributes, whether it be intelligence, language or attachment. This predisposition to certain behaviours stems from evolutionary work with genes. This theory states that humans are restrained in their development by their genetic makeup (Slater A, Muir, D, 1999). This viewpoint was influenced by Darwin’s Origin of species, in which his observation of slight changes in behaviour and form led to his groundbreaking origin of species theory. It was with this viewpoint in mind that he observed his own child’s development in his ‘baby diaries’ and attempted to detail his son’s early development. (Slater. Muir. 1999). Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby were also interested in the evolutionary development in children, and they carried out a number of experiments which they called the strange situation. They discovered that from a very early age children have a primary need or drive to bond with one significant person, usually the mother , and that there are different types of attachment a child can have. From these experiments Ainsworth and Bowlby developed the Attachment theory. Support for the nativist theory of development can be found in language development studies. The nativist viewpoint suggests that humans are predisposed to learn language and are ‘genetically wired with knowledge of language’. Nativist’s believe that a language acquisition device (LAD) is responsible for allowing children to understand rules governing speech from an early age, which makes a complex task such as learning a language easier for young children. There are other universal processes that lend themselves to the nativist viewpoint, for example development as a whole eg, age of starting to try to walk and talk tend to be the same across cultures and demographics. (Cairns 1996, Crain 1993, as cited in Harmon, Jones 2005). It was not until the 1920’s and 30’s that the nativist viewpoint began to lose weight against new behaviourist or associatonist assumptions, which states that a persons development is shaped by their environment, this viewpoint states that when a person is born they are like a blank slate and it is their experience of their environment that shapes their development. This is a mechanacalistic viewpoint, which sees humans as totally passive in their development. The theory states that people develop through learning, which is initiated by using specific stimulus, response connections. This theory has been widely supported by Pavlov’s classical conditioning studies (1926). he found that he could successfully condition dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell when the bell had previously been rang to coincide with feeding time. , this came about through learned association. (Pavlov, 1926, as cited in Klein S, Mowrer, 1989). This study supported the idea that people are conditioned to learn to develop in a certain way through stimulus, response connections. Skinner (1904-1990) had a huge effect on the area of behaviourism. He rejected the assumption of his peers that a child was completely passive in his or her development, he accepted that a child’s environment played a large role in their development, however his operant conditioning theory allowed more flexibility in the fact that it allows that the children emit behaviours on their environment as well as their environment on them. He claimed that children can be shaped by manipulating the reinforcements they receive. For example a parent can elicit bad behaviour by giving attention to a child only when he/she is behaving bad. Watson and Arnold Gesell were also prominent researchers in behaviourism and their belief that conditioning accounted for all learned behaviours stirred up the development debate. Albert Bandura’s theory of social learning came after Pavlov’s work with dogs, his was a much less mechanistic than previous behaviourist theories. He carried out a series of experiments using children to see the affect of reinforcement on aggression. He found that when a group of children had watched a film of an adult being aggressive to a BoBo doll and then were allowed to play with the same doll they copied the aggressive ction, perceiving a reinforcement as there was no obvious reinforcement present. This experiment kept the essential parts of the behaviourist assumption, however it also incorporated learning by observation. This theory used the idea that there are internal workings governing learning as well as simple, reinforcement response, which behaviourists had denied until this time. (Bandura 1960, as cited in Slater,Bremner, 2003) The fourth viewpoint I will discuss is the constructivist viewpoint. This theory state that humans are active participants in what they learn, thus their development. It says that humans have an innate ability to use emotion and intelligence to make sense of the world around them, using schemas, expectations of the world based on previous, similar experiences, to fill in the gaps in knowledge and experience. Therefore a person’s internal viewpoint is individual to them as it is gained from personal experience and internal representations. Piaget was a constructivist who believed that children were not blank slates as behaviourists had suggested, but instead their development is motivated intrinsically not extrinsically. He stated in his theory ‘Adaptation’ that through the processes assimilation and accommodation a child learns to adapt to the world around them, thus developing their knowledge of the world, and skills to live (Slater, Bremner. 2003). ‘Assimilation’ is when a child uses his or her schemas of the world to help them in a new situation, giving them cues on how to behave. ‘Accommodation’ is where a child has to adjust their schemas slightly to accommodate new, more detailed information about a person or experience. The two always coincide as the assimilation helps a child deal with a new experience but then the schema has to change because no two different experiences are the same. These processes are called functional invariants, as they don’t change during development. (Slater, Bremner, 2003) Piaget (1962) outlined four broad stages of cognitive development. The Sensimotor period (birth to two years) in this stage the child develops ’thoughts in action’ they learn that their actions have consequences and so learn to solve problems. The second stage, which is called the preoperational stage, from2 to 7 years. In this stage children learn to solve a number of problems by using intelligence and tools. They develop communication skills through drawing and symbols. However they find it difficult to see things from other people’s point of view. The third stage is called the concrete operations stage; this takes place between ages seven and eleven. This is where the ability to focus the attention on one aspect of a situation and exclude others. The formal operations stage (from about 11 years) sees the child becoming able to solve complex problems and using hypothetical thought to hold complex discussions, weighing out responses like scientists do. Slater,Bremner. 2003). Developmental psychology has seen many shifts in popularity in the approaches used to explain the development of humans. Psychologists such as Skinner, in his social learning theory, have incorporated two types of theory, for example social and behavioural, however the different poles of learning all still hold relevance today although their seems to be no unified discipline that incorporates all schools of learning. How to cite Developmental Psychology, Essay examples Developmental psychology Free Essays This evidence shows prove that being in a low income family or living in poverty as some might like to say, has a very big impact on children’s life if a parent has low self-esteem no drive in themselves then it is not showing young children how to grow into young positive, confident and thriving adults, so therefore Just copy what they now and this can cause a cycle. Quality of food we eat and give our children Is another environmental fact that can can help with our child’s development, Junk food for example can make children obese, this can cause all sorts of problems In health, children who are obese will have less energy, this will cause children to not want to socialism, and this can lead to other problems such as low self-esteem,depression and anger. If you feed children more healthy food they are going to have so much more energy It will make them eager to go out and socialism and most of all help them to learn, improve your child’s behavior and learning by improving their diet. We will write a custom essay sample on Developmental psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now Eating adequate protein and getting other nutrients that support optimal brain functioned life and school is another most important environmental fact that has a big impact on a child’s development. Some children can not have the love and attention they would like and need at home this can cause children to be rebel’s as some people would say, this could be caused by not knowing how to show emotion, this could be because of them not being shown emotion by family Page 1 15 Lisa Henderson 72ND at home so in a sense it’s attention seeking this is due to a child doesn’t feel that they are getting any attention of their family/parent’s and the only way to do that is to play up even though it’s not necessarily the attention they would like from their family, its there only way of getting it. School has another impact on children’s development, if a child is asked to do something at school and feels they are incapable but yet the teacher still insists that the child carries out the activity the child can then start to feel frustrated,angry and then leaves the child feeling inadequate and leaves them with a sense of failure and embarrassment. Bullying is another major problem that can happen inside or outside of school and has a major impact on children’s behavior and development this can cause low self-esteem, and stress which can then cause lack of sleep due to worry which then stops the main from functioning to its full a capability, stopping the child to fully express them selves. To help children who are in this situation they need support and need confidence and transduction’s, the characteristic of this and the meaning is that children or adults develop through a more hands on approach, by this I mean learning by doing. A Russian man named Level Whisky was one of the first men to push to prove that children can learn through constructivist learning. Level Whisky used a method called ‘scaffolding’ in this method he changed the level of support which was provided depending on how skilled the child was and this of course did vary. Depending on how skilled the child was would depend on how much help they would need, and in time need none at all. Quote: The term ‘scaffolding’ is meant to represent the support for assistance provided by the teacher or mentor in the learning process. â€Å"cataloging† is a metaphor that describes the way a teacher provides assistance to the students during the learning process in much the same way that construction scaffolding serves as a temporary support until the build 2005 An example of this is some children might be able to write their name at the age of three and some children might not be able to until they are five. This is a good example to compare this theory against the constructivist theory, the reason for this is children might learn to write their name at school by using the more hands on earning approach, but younger children could learn it earlier then this by maturing earlier. Maturations learning was a way that children could learn at their own pace, every child learns different and some faster than others, this was also a way of children improving on what they already new and choosing new ways of learning by themselves, instead of somebody trying to teach them something they are was not ready to learn natural way. . Maturations also it all owed children to develop in a â€Å"observe progress in a child and choose to focus on what a child already knows, rather than what he or she doesn’t know’ Children mature at different stages and this could be for a numerous reasons, due to being a premature baby or Just they are incapable of doing something because they haven’t developed the skills to perform certain tasks yet. An example of this is, a three year old child at the age of three being able to talk in full sentences and another child exactly the same age not being able to talk at all with no medical reason what’s so ever Just that he is not yet capable of doing so. I know this from experience. With a child who isn’t capable of doing things like other children there win age this would be a good way of trying to teach them, its a good way of them learning at their own pace in their own time without feeling pressured. Page/ 5 Henderson 72ND II: Using Jean Piglet’s stages of cognitive development, describe the rationale behind the use of Key stage testing in primary schools. Lean Piglet’s stated that children progressed through four different stages in their childhood. The stage he stated children was at during primary school was the concrete operations stage. This was studied with ages 7-11 . â€Å"Concrete operations (ages-11). As physical experience accumulates, accommodation s increased. The child begins to think abstractly and conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experience’s† How to cite Developmental psychology, Papers DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Free Essays Developmental Psychology Free Essays ASSIGNMENT IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 1. Sexual transmitted disease in pregnant women women who are pregnant can become infected with the same sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) as women who are not pregnant. Pregnancy does not provide women or their babies any protection against STDs. We will write a custom essay sample on Developmental Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now The consequences of an STD can be significantly more serious, even life threatening, for a woman and her baby if the woman becomes infected with an STD while pregnant. It is important that women be aware of the harmful effects of STDs and know how to protect themselves and their children against infection. . Premature Babies A premature baby, or preemie, is born before the 37th week of pregnancy. Premature birth occurs in between 8 percent to 10 percent of all pregnancies in the United States. Because they are born too early, preemies weigh much less than full-term babies. They may have health problems because their organs did not have enough time to develop. Preemies need special medical care in a neonatal intensive care unit, or NICU. They stay there until their organ systems can work on their own. 3. Sensation, Perception, and Learning of Infants. THE INFANT’S SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL CAPACITIES Unlocking the Secrets of Babies’ Sensory Capabilities Infants’ sensations and perceptions are no longer completely obscure to researchers, who have learned how to measure infants’ sensory and perceptual capacities. In their efforts to understand whether babies can distinguish between one stimulus and another investigators often make use of the infant’s tendency to habituate, or become used to, a given stimulus. Another technique is to use the visual preference method, in which researchers pinpoint a baby’s preference for one of two alternative stimuli. 4. sudden infant death syndrome Typically the infant is found dead after having been put to bed, and exhibits no signs of having suffered. [7] SIDS is a diagnosis of exclusion. It should only be applied to an infant whose death is sudden and unexpected and remains unexplained after the performance of an adequate postmortem investigation including: 1. an autopsy (by an experienced pediatric pathologist, if possible); 2. nvestigation of the death scene and circumstances of the death; 3. exploration of the medical history of the infant and family. Australia and New Zealand are shifting to the term â€Å"sudden unexplained death in infancy† (SUDI) for professional, scientific and coronial clarity. The term SUDI is now often used instead of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) because some coroners prefer to use the term ‘undete rmined’ for a death previously considered to be SIDS. This change is causing diagnostic shift in the mortality data. [8] In addition, the U. S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has recently suggested that such deaths be called â€Å"sudden unexpected infant deaths† (SUID) and that SIDS is a subset of SUID. [9] 4. Post partum depression Postpartum depression is depression that occurs soon after having a baby. Some health professionals callit postpartum nonpsychotic depression. †¢This condition occurs in about 10-20% of women, usuallywithina fewmonths of delivery. †¢Risk factors include previous major depression, psychosocial stress, inadequate social support, and previous premenstrual dysphoric disorder(see premenstrual syndromefor more information). Symptoms include depressed mood, tearfulness, inability to enjoy pleasurable activities, trouble sleeping, fatigue, appetite problems, suicidal thoughts, feelings of inadequacy as a parent, and impaired concentration. †¢If you experience postpartum depression, you may worry about the baby’s health and well-being. You may have negative thoughts about the baby and fears about harming the infant (although women who have these thoughts rarely act on them). †¢Postpartum depression interferes witha woman’sability to care forher baby. When a woman with severe postpartum depression becomes suicidal, she may consider killing her infant and young children, not from anger, but from a desire not to abandon thePostpartum (puerperal) psychosis is the most serious postpartum disorder. It requires immediate treatment. †¢This condition is rare. A woman with this condition experiences psychotic symptoms within 3 weeks of giving birth. These include false beliefs (delusions), hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that are not there), or both. †¢This condition is associated with mood disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, or psychosis. How to cite Developmental Psychology, Papers Developmental psychology Free Essays Introduction When having any sort of relationship people that are important to you, caring is the foundation of it. When individual are less able to take care of themselves and are dependent on a certain individual is given the name caregiver, as there care for people that have physical or psychological disability. The way a caregiver delivers care by showing concern and empathy states how tough their bonds are. We will write a custom essay sample on Developmental psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now A strong bond in a relationship can, not only bring healthy psychological development in an individual who is being cared for, but also attachment with the caregiver. Individuals can have an emotional bond to humans around them that there care for this is call attachment; John Bowlby one of the first attachment theorist, unfolding attachment as a â€Å"lasting psychological connectedness between human beings† (Bowlby, 1969, p. 194). The attachment theory states that caregivers feel some sort of safety with the child when obtaining and openness to the child’s desires. Once the child feels the caregiver is reliable this gives the child a chance to discover humanity. Bowlbys four characteristics Proximity Maintenance; The desire to be near the people we are attached to. Safe Haven; Returning to the attachment figure for comfort and safety in the face of a fear or threat. Secure Base; the attachment figure acts as a base of security from which the child can explore the surrounding environment. Separation Distress; Anxiety that occurs in the absence of the attachment figure. The earliest strong bonds formed by a child with their caregiver impact on their healthy psychological development, but what happens to children who do not form secure attachments and strong bonds with their caregivers? Physical abuse can affect children bonds in relationship which can and bring unhealthy psychological development to the child. Abuse from prima Abuse by a primary caregiver damages the most fundamental relationship as a child—that it will safely, reliably get its physical and emotional needs met by the person who is responsible for its care. Darlene Barriere, victim and writer of her memoir titled â€Å"Victim to Victory†, tells her story of child abuse and her struggle through childhood and adolescence. The physical abuse she suffered at the hands of both her mother and father lead her to not only hate her caregivers but drove her to attempt suicide to escape her pain. She started smoking at an early age and to fit in. She quit school and ran away from home to start sexual relations with older men. She was then later diagnosed with morbid obesity. Compulsive overeating made food her drug of choice. Then she made food her enemy and suffered from the eating disorders of anorexia nervosa and bulimia. In the end it was psychotherapy that saved Darlene and helped her live a healthy lifestyle. Darlene displayed none of Bowlbys characteristics of attachment to her caregivers. By not forming a secure attachment to her caregivers in the early stages of her life, it had a negative impact on her behaviour later on in her life. Her story clearly shows how unhealthy her psychological development as a child and adolescent was and how important a strong bond with a caregiver is for healthy psychological development. Child sexual abuse is a particularly complicated form of abuse because of the torment of shame and guilt involved. What is even more terrifying is that sexual abuse typically occurs at the hands of someone the child knows and should be able to trust—most often a caregiver such as a parent or teacher. Contrary to what many believe, it’s not just girls who are at sexually abused. Boys and girls both suffer from sexual abuse. In fact, sexual abuse among boys often goes unreported due to the shame and stigma involved. The emotional trauma is so powerful that it leads to an unhealthy psychological development in a child. This can not only leave deep, long lasting scars, but also bring self-hatred and sexual problems as they grow older—often either excessive promiscuity or an inability to have intimate relations. Thousands of cases go unreported and some find the courage to write about their stories on Internet forums, such as a story posted by an anonymous girl. In he r case, she was sexually abused between the ages of 5 to 16 by her father. She would never feel safe around her father and developed a strong hate towards him. She became anti-social from a young age. Throughout this ordeal she was confused and did not know whom she could trust. She knew it would tear her family apart. After finding the courage to tell her family and report her father to the authorities it did just that. Guilt and shame lead her to run away from home and to drop out of school. She blamed herself and developed a self-hatred, which lead to depression. She found heroin as a way to escape her reality and her problems. Quickly became addicted, she started working as a prostitution to support her drug addiction. It was a decade later after spending time in rehabilitation and counseling that she cleaned up her act and overcome her hate for herself. By applying Bowlbys four distinguishing characteristics of attachment to this example, it is clearly visible that she had not formed secure attachment to her caregivers. She was not provided with a secure base to explore the world, which resulted in her developing anti-social behavior and falling into depression. She did not want to maintain proximity to her father and did not feel a safe haven around him. She felt more comfortable to be separated to her caregivers, which lead her into leaving her home at a young age. This all resulted in her unhealthy psychological development and because of this unhealthy development it had a negative impact on her life. Her story shows how important it is to for a child to develop a strong bond and secure attachment to its caregivers for healthy psychological development. It is noticeable that failure to form strong bonds and secure attachments with a caregiver by a child early in life can have a negative impact on behavior in later childhood and throughout their life. Research suggests that children diagnosed with oppositional-defiant disorder, conduct disorder, or post-traumatic stress disorder, commonly display attachment problems. Often due to early abuse, neglect, or trauma. In examples of physical and sexual child abuse by a caregiver, it is evident that it leads to detachment and weak bonds with the caregiver. The outcome is unhealthy psychological development in the child. For a child to have a healthy psychological development it is crucial that a caregiver is available and responsive to a child’s needs. By doing so they establish a sense of security in the child. This sense of security develops a strong bond with the caregiver. The child knows that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a secure base for the child to explore the w orld and results in healthy psychological development. Reference Myers,D.G.(2010).PSYCHOLOGY.(9TH). USA:Worth. What is a caregiver.[Wise Geek].[online].9th September 2010 Available from:http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-caregiver.htm[Accessed 13th December 2010] AttachmentTheory [About.com].[online].2010.Avaiable fromhttp://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/a/attachment01.htm[Accessed 13th December 2010] Domestic Violence and Attachment Theory. [daniel-sonkin.[online] Available from:http://www.daniel-sonkin.com/sonkin82405.htm[Accessed 13th December 2010] Child Abuse and Neglect [Help Guide].[online].Available from:http://helpguide.org/mental/child_abuse_physical_emotional_sexual_neglect.htm[Accessed 14th December 2010] child abuse effects.[child abuse effects].[online]http://www.child-abuse-effects.com/[Accessed 14th December 2010] From Victim to Victory a memoir.[child abuse effects].[online]. October 28, 2009 Available from;http://www.child-abuse-effects.com/my-story-of-abuse.html[Accessed 14th December 2010] How to cite Developmental psychology, Essay examples